The Stone: The Maze of Moral Relativism

Relativism about morality has come to play an increasingly important role in contemporary culture.Â* To many thoughtful people, and especially to those who are unwilling to derive their morality from a religion, it appears unavoidable.Â* Where would absolute facts about right and wrong come from, they reason, if there is no supreme being to decree them? We should reject moral absolutes, even as we keep our moral convictions, allowing that there can be right and wrong relative to this or that moral code, but no right and wrong per se. Â*(See, for example, Stanley Fish’s 2001 op-ed, "Condemnation Without Absolutes.")[1]Is it plausible to respond to the rejection of absolute moral facts with a relativistic view of morality?Â* Why should our response not be a more extreme, nihilistic one, according to which we stop using normative terms like “right” and “wrong” altogether, be it in their absolutist or relativist guises? Relativism is not always a coherent way of responding to the rejection of a certain class of facts.Â* When we decided that there were no such things as witches, we didn't become relativists about witches.Â* Rather, we just gave up witch talk altogether, except by way of characterizing the attitudes of people (such as those in Salem) who mistakenly believed that the world <a href="http://.www.knobonsale.com"><strong>granite knobs</strong></a> contained witches, or by way of characterizing what it is that children find it fun to pretend to be on Halloween.Â* We became what we may call "eliminativists" about witches.On the other hand, when Einstein taught us, in his Special Theory of Relativity, that there was no such thing as the absolute simultaneity of two events, the recommended outcome was that we become relativists about simultaneity, allowing that there is such a thing as “simultaneity relative to a (spatio-temporal) frame of reference,” but not simultaneity as such.What's the difference between the witch case and the simultaneity case?Â* Why did the latter rejection lead to relativism, but the former to eliminativism?In the simultaneity case, Einstein showed that while the world does not contain simultaneity as such, it does contain its relativistic cousin — simultaneity relative to a frame of reference — a property that plays something like the same sort of role as classical simultaneity did in our theory of the world.By contrast, in the witch case, once we give up on witches, there is no relativistic cousin that plays anything like the role that witches were supposed to play.Â*Â* The property, that two events may have, of “being simultaneous relative to frame of reference F” is recognizably a kind of simultaneity.Â* But the property of “being a witch according to a belief system T” is not a kind of witch, but a kind of content (the content of belief system T):Â* it's a way of characterizing what belief system T says, not a way of characterizing the world.Now, the question is whether the moral case is more like that of simultaneity or more like that of witches?Â* When we reject absolute moral facts is moral relativism the correct outcome or is it moral eliminativism (nihilism)?The answer, as we have seen, depends on whether there are relativistic cousins of “right” and “wrong” that can play something like the same role that absolute “right” and “wrong” play.It is hard to see what those could be.What's essential to “right” and “wrong” is that they are normative terms, terms that are used to say how things ought to be, in contrast with how things actually are.Â* But what relativistic cousin of “right” and “wrong” could play anything like such a normative role?Most moral relativists say that moral right and wrong are to be relativized to a community's “moral code.” According to some such codes, eating beef is permissible; according to others, it is an abomination and must never be allowed.Â* The relativist proposal is that we must never talk simply about what's right or wrong, but only about what's “right or wrong relative to a particular moral code.”The trouble is that while “Eating beef is wrong” is clearly a normative statement, “Eating beef is wrong relative to the moral code of the Hindus” is just a descriptive remark that carries no normative import whatsoever.Â* It's just a way of characterizing what is claimed by a particular moral code, that of the Hindus.Â* We can see this from the fact that anyone, regardless of their views about eating beef, can agree that eating beef is wrong relative to the moral code of the Hindus.So, it looks as though the moral case is more like the witch case than the simultaneity case:Â* there are no relativistic cousins of “right” and “wrong.”Â* Denial of moral absolutism leads not to relativism, but to nihilism.[2]There is no half-way house called “moral relativism,” in which we continue to use normative vocabulary with <a href="http://www.knobonsale.com"><strong>granite pulls</strong></a> the stipulation that it is to be understood as relativized to particular moral codes.Â* If there are no absolute facts about morality, “right” and “wrong” would have to join “witch” in the dustbin of failed concepts.The argument is significant because it shows that we should not rush to give up on absolute moral facts, mysterious as they can sometimes seem, for the world might seem even more mysterious without any normative vocabulary whatsoever.One might be suspicious of my argument against moral relativism. Aren't we familiar with some normative domains — such as that of etiquette — about which we are all relativists?Â* Surely, no one in their right minds would think that there is some absolute fact of the matter about whether we ought to slurp our noodles while eating.If we are dining at Buckingham Palace, we ought not to slurp, since our hosts would consider it offensive, and we ought not, other things being equal, offend our hosts.Â* On the other hand, if we are dining in Xian, China, we ought to slurp, since in Xian slurping is considered to be a sign that we are enjoying our meal, and our hosts would consider it offensive if we didn't slurp, and we ought not, other things being equal, offend our hosts.But if relativism is coherent in the case of etiquette why couldn't we claim that morality is relative in the same way?The reason is that our relativism about etiquette does not actually dispense with all absolute moral facts.Â* Rather, we are relativists about etiquette in the sense that, with respect to a restricted range of issues (such as table manners and greetings), we take the correct absolute norm to be "we ought not, other things being equal, offend our hosts."This norm is absolute and applies to everyone and at all times.Â* Its relativistic flavor comes <a href="http://www.5capshop.com"><strong>DC hats wholesale</strong></a> from the fact that, with respect to that limited range of behaviors (table manners and greetings, but not, say, the abuse of children for fun), it advocates varying one's behavior with local convention.In other words, the relativism of etiquette depends on the existence of absolute moral norms.Â* Since etiquette does not dispense with absolute moral facts, one cannot hope to use it as a model for moral relativism.Suppose we take this point on board, though, and admit that there have to be some absolute moral facts.Â* Why couldn't they all be like the facts involved in etiquette?Â* Why couldn't they all say that, with respect to any morally relevant question, what we ought to do depends on what the local conventions are?The trouble with this approach is that once we have admitted that there are some absolute moral facts, it is hard to see why we shouldn't think that there are many — as many as common sense and ordinary reasoning appear to warrant.Â* Having given up on the purity of a thoroughgoing anti-absolutism, we would now be in the business of trying to figure out what absolute moral facts there are.Â* To do that, we would need to employ our usual mix of argument, intuition and experience.Â* And what argument, intuition and experience tell us is that whether we should slurp our noodles depends on what the local conventions are, but whether we should abuse children for fun does not.A would-be relativist about morality needs to decide whether his view grants the existence of some absolute moral facts, or whether it is to be a pure relativism, free of any commitment to absolutes.Â* The latter position, I have argued, is mere nihilism; whereas the former leads us straight out of relativism and back into the quest for the moral absolutes.None of this is to deny that there are hard cases, where it is not easy to see what the correct answer to a moral question is.Â* It is merely to emphasize that there appears to be no good alternative to thinking that, when we are in a muddle about what the answer to a hard moral question is, we are in a muddle about what the absolutely correct answer is. FOOTNOTES:[1] Pinning a precise philosophical position on someone, especially a non-philosopher, is always tricky, because people tend to give non-equivalent formulations of what they take to be the same view. Fish, for example, after saying that his view is that "there can be no independent standards for determining which of many rival interpretations of an event is the true one," which sounds appropriately relativistic, ends up claiming that all he means to defend is "the practice of putting yourself in your adversary's shoes, not in order to wear them as your own but in order to have some understanding (far short of approval) of why someone else might want to wear them." The latter, though, is just the recommendation of empathetic understanding and is, of course, both good counsel and perfectly consistent with the endorsement of moral absolutes.Another view with which moral relativism is sometimes conflated is the view that the right thing to do can depend on the circumstances. There is no question that the right thing to do can depend on the circumstances, even on an absolutist view. Whether you should help someone in need can depend on what your circumstances are, what their circumstances are, and so forth. What makes a view relativistic is its holding that the right thing to do depends not just on the circumstances, but on what the person (or his community) takes to be the right thing to do, on their moral code.In this column, I am only concerned with those who wish to deny that there are any absolute moral truths in this sense. If that is not your view, then you are not the target of this particular discussion.[2] Some philosophers may think that they can evade this problem by casting the relativism in terms of a relativized truth predicate rather than a relativized moral predicate. But as I have explained elsewhere, <a href="http://www.casualphorum.com/viewtopic.php?p=1867553#1867553"><strong>Articles Jam » discount oakley sunglasses This photo are an</strong></a> the problem of the loss of normative content recurs in that setting. Paul Boghossian is Silver Professor of Philosophy at New York University. He is the author of “Fear of Knowledge: Against Relativism and Constructivism,” “Content and Justification: Philosophical Papers,” and co-editor of “New Essays on the A Priori,” all from Oxford University Press. More of his work can be found on his Web site.

Wenzhou Times reporter Wu
line in wonderful

12 月 17 evening, Ryan is a local forum on the net posts to be friends with a large-scale Net posts broke the news: Ruian City Land Resources Bureau, director of risk management in a town with a drunk woman hostessing open room, encountered resistance, women's cries alerted the hotel staff. When police arrived on the scene, the woman took off his pants ... ... Yu has been a
incident, a fear of the Ruian City Land Resources Bureau report said the leadership: a good thing, see the woman drunk to open the room to let her rest. December 23, police said Ryan, has deployed elite forces in the investigation, but can not disclose details.
learned, Ruian City Commission for Discipline Inspection has also been involved in the investigation.
Yu said the opening of a room is to do good

the net posts originally appeared in the evening of December 17 local forums Ryan was later reposted the major online forums Wenzhou ,ralph lauren polo sale, has fueled their attention. As of press time, the network of thousands of visitors click on posts, with Posts up to hundreds.
12 20 December, appeared on the Internet for the network posts a Declaration inscribed as
contents of the statement, said the content of posts by serious inaccuracies, Yu has never been involved in security cases in a criminal case. The statement also name of the unit
Ruian City Land Resources Bureau, the official said, drink, it was suggested that he send the woman home. because the woman was afraid of her boyfriend, said Yu opened a room for a rest to the woman.
Yu said in a media interview, At that time in the hotel room for what happened he did not want to say.
waiter in the end to hear what

Ruian city in the matter of a hotel, is located in the heart of the city of Anyang, Shandong Road, Long Road intersection. According to a person in charge of the hotel description: Nov. 16 1:05 am Hui, a man (Yu a) escorted a woman to the hotel. Taiwan registered a total danger to the open room, the woman standing in the doorway, etc. It looks a lot like drinking wine. Subsequently, the fear of an arm with women entering the hotel, entered the room.
over a period of time, there are attendant to the hotel security reporting, followed by the hotel side to the police. To report a security alarm attendant Why it? The housekeeping department manager surnamed Liu, said a waiter heard a woman screaming, the sound is relatively large.
However,ralph lauren clothing, what the woman yelling in the end? Hotel party,ralph lauren shop, said the waiter did not specifically say that the waiter is currently on vacation, the inconvenience to bother asking.
to privacy on the grounds the police do not want to say more

receiving the alarm, Ryan, the first time the police arrived on the scene, the danger of a take away. According to informed sources, the risk of a handcuffed away from the scene by police.
Ryan, who told reporters on the Public Security Bureau,ralph lauren womens dresses, said the questioning of their fear of a certain time does not exceed 12 hours, the formation of the transcript is only 1, not the existence of so-called
police received the alarm is on The police sources, from the scene investigation and the evidence currently available, there is no direct evidence of filing.
receiving the alarm, the police will be the woman to the hospital for physical examination, no evidence could be found on file. Police said the woman on her wine drunk, do not know what happened. Police say the identity of the woman with the Land and Resources Bureau, said Ryan is not the same, said the woman from the field.
Ryan Police stressed that they have dispatched elite forces to investigate, prosecute, as long as there is some evidence,
Police said,polo shirts,

Exposure of posts by the name of the most dedicated teachers, bit by bit to the students attending classes. Figure

Red Net users in Changsha for December 12 (Xiaoxiang Morning roll of journalists Genghong Ren) to Many users said the awe-inspiring, it was also speculation that is staged, and are in New City, Jiangsu Pizhou teacher of secondary school responded that the parties von accidental, do not fuss.
exposure of posts by the name of the most dedicated teachers, bit by bit to the class, the students

this post was first published in the Nov. 26 forum at the local Pizhou, followed by other major domestic well-known forum Crazy reproduced picture, a short hair, wearing a black coat standing in middle-aged teacher's blackboard, on the left wearing fluids, salt and water bottles hung on nails on the blackboard at the top, right hand holding the chalk, was deeply explain to students a high school math geometry topics, students listen in attentively, was placed next to the blackboard with a fountain, posts and also feeling that this is true professionalism.
users informed of which claim to reveal that very dedicated, very beautiful writing on the blackboard, the language is Mandarin, lesson plans is a first class, some teachers Niubi than the city more, so that the teachers have also been rare, ah, and work seriously indeed,ralph lauren polo shirt, is the education of man His experience has been very people they admired most in here to extend my highest respect. drip edge school concerned, that someone raised the question that this is wrong, said the risks great, institutions escape the blame,ralph lauren online, say, a flu now so serious, if not to cure a cold yourself, be transmitted to students is extremely irresponsible, does not matter sorted out his other teachers in exchange for a class, such as hanging End water and then school you? avoid the flash, as teachers, students can not see this move should be stopped, at least, should be ordered to delete photos, and then there is also sent to the Internet for discussion to be seen is likely to be someone behind the scenes the speculation process, the first camera,ralph lauren shirts, and then spread to the Internet, find the media exposure, signs of obvious speculation is really sensational.
, shot put speculation that Substitute the other teachers, and because only small problem I would therefore hold the past Well, it also reflects the teacher now living conditions, health concern, but informed also that if the school is not right. p> Another claimed that it was photographed informed users, the show is not possible, the place is two days Pizhou City Park School (5) classes, to persuade them to rest, Feng teacher explained: now was a outbreak of influenza trends, I do not know which day the school closed, it is afraid I could not finish the semester, not to mention their own are not linked to water fever, but diarrhea only. >
also claimed to be students of the elementary school teacher, said users need not make a fuss, shoot it to you? no investigation no right to speak, to judge by his behavior, he just felt that his class, and went to class, did not expect to adjust course, not show people. > to some material comfort, the spirit of the majority of teachers are also worth studying, her class if you do not seriously study, it is a painstaking teacher I am sorry, I wish the teacher soon. afternoon, the Xiaoxiang Morning News reporter was removed rolling contact on the parties von teacher, the teacher introduced Feng situation at that time, he said it was the morning of November 20, section I had his class, the feeling of stomach problems, Section no classes together, then to the school clinic for an intravenous drip, because the doctor to open two bottles of drip, never thought about playing for a long time, while the third class there are class, taking into account the trouble can not be delayed,ralph lauren outlet, so he hurried to the classroom, let students do exercises, the result was not, he came for a lecture.
Just at this time, school activities, a charge of photography, do publicity teacher at passing, which he took the positive, forward, do not feel anything at that time, and then upload photos to a teacher at within the school issued a notice to the public by mail, the password is that many people know, the pictures in the end who is to go to the web has been no investigation, the teacher said Cao is not because he passed, and his friends also in receipt of Telephone, Internet was talking about him to know, but it also proved that his intention was not uploaded to the Internet.
for online criticism, for example, what his self-hype,ralph lauren uk, Feng teacher said he could not play any speculation, because speculation does not do any good to him, , and speculation can You Shayong? is not a substitute can not find the other teachers, plus a Friday, the trouble I'm sorry the other teachers, students think the class can not be delayed, then went to class, this is a teacher should do thing, it can be said is insignificant, not worth promoting, is really an accident. Big willing, I feel this is too much fuss over, because it is his own work, and now so much noise
school response: the spirit is commendable, but the sick do not advocate class

12 11 afternoon, the reporter also Xiaoxiang Morning roll call Pizhou City, Jiangsu Xincheng Office of Secondary School Principals, Geng said a president named later this thing he is known and confirmed it's true, but very sincerely that this kind of sick things in class, the school point of view is very clear, do not advocate stomach a little uncomfortable, that no serious problem, persists go to class, it can not play the Han self-hype, are a student or parent will be photos to the web, and relatively strong throughout the school teaching environment, many teachers are very dedicated, so it will not have any special incentives.